Educators of Prospective Teachers Hesitate to Embrace Evolution Due to Deficient Understanding of Science/Evolution and High Religiosity

General Faculty

Two hundred and forty four (24.6%) of the 992 general faculty contacted to participate in the study (F = 44.4%, M = 55.6%; 40 disciplines) completed the survey (Table 1; see details in Table S1), a response rate comparable to analogous email/online studies (=24%, The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press 2009). The average number of general faculty contacted per state was 165 (r = 142–215) and the average percent of responders per state was 25 (r = 23.0–27.9; Table 1). Of all responders (n = 244), 36.9% were females and 63.1% were males (Table 1).

Educators of Prospective Teachers

Sixty-two (12.3%) of the 506 educators of prospective teachers contacted to participate in the study (F = 61.5%, M = 38.5%; 32 specializations) completed the survey (Table 1; see details in Table S1), a lower response rate than the general faculty (above) but consistent with the parameters of sample representativeness and statistical confidence (see "Representativeness of the Samples and Statistical Confidence" below); note that scholars of survey methodology no longer attribute primary validity to response rates (Groves et al. 2009; Berkman and Plutzer 2011) but rather to demographic segmentation and low variance in responses (van Bennekom 2002), as in this study. The average number of educators of prospective teachers contacted per state was 84 (r = 54–153; Table 1), and the average percent of responders per state was 12 (r = 7.2–16.4; Table 1). Of all responders (n = 62), 59.7% were females and 40.3% were males (Table 1).

Students

Eight hundred and twenty-seven (4.7%) of the 17,621 students contacted to participate in the study completed the survey (Table 2; see details in Table S2). Response rate by students varied among institutions: Pub 161 (2.0% of 7,982 contacted), Priv 298 (7.8% of 3,806 contacted), Rel I 185 (4.7% of 3,910 contacted), and Rel II 183 (9.5% of the 1,923 contacted; Tables 2 and S2); these values were consistent with previous online sampling of these institutions where the demographic profile of participants in the surveys resembled closely the institutional profiles (Paz-y-Miño-C and Espinosa 2009a, b, 2011b). Of all responders (n = 827), 61.5% were females and 38.5% were males (Tables 2 and S2).

Representativeness of the Samples and Statistical Confidence

We consider our samples statistically representative of the New England general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students for the following reasons: (1) The demographic segmentation of responders (i.e., percent of responders per state and type of institution as function of the segmentation of those contacted) was in accordance with the demographics of the entire populations participating in the study (Tables 1, 2, S1 and S2). Note that the response rate per state as function of those completing the survey was statistically similar between Gen Fac and Edu (Chi-square = 2.150, df = 5, P = 0.828; data extracted from Table 1), as well as the Gen Fac and Edu demographic profiles for New England, East Coast, and other states in the U.S. (Chi-square = 1.116, df = 2, P = 0.572; data extracted from Table 2), but not when foreign countries were included in the comparison (Chi-square = 8.648, df = 3, P = 0.034; data extracted from Table 2). Due to the rareness of international faculty (1.6%) among the educators of prospective teachers, the latter did not skew the pattern of responses. The students’ demographic profiles closely matched those of the entire student populations at their institutions, as well as their New England (76.2%) and East Coast (15%) upbringing (Tables 2 and S2); their responses were, therefore, pooled in a single group of students (Table 2) to homogenize their public-, private- secular or religious backgrounds, thus matching the students’ profiles with those of the general faculty and the educators (note that independent analysis of New England student views about evolution have been published; Paz-y-Miño-C and Espinosa 2009a, b, 2011a). (2) The responses were tightly clustered (low variance is associated with satisfactory accuracy; see van Bennekom 2002) in each sample of Gen Fac, Edu, and Stu that we used to generate the index SI (variance: Gen Fac = 0.495, Edu = 1.036, and Stu = 0.910), EI (variance: Gen Fac = 0.431, Edu = 0.729, and Stu = 0.682), and religiosity index RI (variance: Gen Fac = 0.703, Edu = 1.028, and Stu = 1.190), from which we drew broad conclusions about acceptance of evolution in the context of the responders’ understanding of science/evolution and level of religiosity (see Figs. 11, 12, and Discussion). (3) The margin of error per sample at 95% certainty and 50% response distribution was consistent with conventional polling of public opinions of variable sizes (see van Bennekom 2002), as follows: Gen Fac ± 5.5%, Edu ± 11.7%, and Stu ± 3.3% (sample size calculator Raosoft 2011); note that by mentally adding and/or subtracting the margin of error values to/from the percentile responses in each question (results Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, below) the differential response pattern between Gen Fac, Edu, and Stu persists. (4) The Gen Fac, Edu, and Stu held consistently high, middle, and low percentile levels of agreement/disagreement, respectively in each of the ten survey questions (except for a nonstatistical difference in question 5; see Fig. 5); and (5) the response rates of the general faculty (24.6%), educators of prospective teachers (12.3%), and students (4.7%), in respect to the total populations contacted, were analogous to comparable studies of public opinions in the U.S. (The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press 2009) and consistent with our previous studies (Paz-y-Miño-C and Espinosa 2009a, b, 2011a); note observation about modern views on surveys validity based on response rates (above).

Evolution, Creationism, and Intelligent Design in the Science Class

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students differed in their views about the teaching of evolution (Fig. 1; Chi-square = 23.968, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001): 96.3% of the general faculty versus 86.2% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 70.7% of the students considered that evolution should be taught in science classes as an explanation about the origin and development of life on Earth; in contrast, 3.7% of the general faculty versus 13.8% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 29.3% of the students favored equal time to evolution, creationism and intelligent design. Educators of prospective teachers had intermediate percentile levels of support for the exclusive teaching of evolution between the general faculty (high) and the students (low), but were statistically similar to both groups; only the general faculty differed statistically from the students (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 1). Although the general faculty support for the “equal time” option was negligible (3.7%), at least one in seven educators of prospective teachers (13.8%) and one in three students (29.3%) favored it (Fig. 1). Note that concerning the “equal time” option, the views of each group were statistically different (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 1), and the educators of prospective teachers placed intermediate.

Intelligent Design

The general faculty and educators of prospective teachers had comparable opinions about ID, which differed from the students’ variable perception of ID (Fig. 2; Chi-square = 50.836, df = 8, P ≤ 0.001): 46.7/45.5% of the general faculty and 41.9/40.3% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 22.9/27.4% of the students perceived ID as either not scientific and proposed to counter evolution based on false claims or as religious doctrine consistent with creationism, respectively. A small percent of the general faculty and educators of prospective teachers in comparison to a higher percent of students had either no opinion about ID (2.5% general faculty, 6.5% educators of prospective teachers, 23.2% students), considered ID a scientific alternative to evolution and of equal scientific validity among scientists (2.5% general faculty, 3.2% educators of prospective teachers, 9.0% students), or thought of ID as a scientific theory about the origin of life on Earth (2.8% general faculty, 8.1% educators of prospective teachers, 17.6% students; sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 2).

Evolution and Responders’ Reaction to it

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students had distinctive positions about evolution (Fig. 3; Chi-square = 18.538, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001): 96.6% of the general faculty, 81.4% of the educators of prospective teachers and 76.4% of the students thought that hearing about evolution made them appreciate the factual explanation about the origin of life on Earth and its place in the universe; educators of prospective teachers had intermediate percentile level of agreement with this position between the general faculty (high) and the students (low), but the three groups were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 3). Although only 3.4% of the general faculty considered that hearing about evolution makes no difference because evolution and creationism are in harmony, at least one in five educators of prospective teachers (18.6%) and one in four students (23.6%) hold this position (Fig. 3). Note that concerning the “harmony” option, the views of the educators of prospective teachers were statistically similar to the students’ and these two groups differed from the general faculty (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 3).

Position about the Teaching of Human Evolution

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students agreed on their views about the teaching of human evolution (Fig. 4; Chi-square = 3.931, df = 2, P = 0.14): 98.8% of the general faculty, 96.6% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 93.7% of the students preferred science courses where evolution is discussed comprehensively and humans are part of it, and only 1.2% of the general faculty, 3.4% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 6.3% of the students preferred evolution discussions about plants and animals but not humans. In each case (i.e., science courses including or excluding human evolution) the general faculty, educators of prospective teachers and student responses were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≥ 0.05; Fig 4).

Evolution in Science Exams

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students shared opinions about the inclusion of evolution in science exams (Fig. 5; Chi-square = 1.34, df = 2, P = 0.512): 79.4% of the general faculty, 72.4% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 75.6% of the students had no problem with either instructors including questions concerning evolution in exams or answering questions concerning evolution in exams, respectively, and 20.6% of the general faculty, 27.6% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 24.4% of the students considered that exams should always include some questions concerning evolution. In each case (i.e., optional or required inclusion of questions about evolution in exams) the general faculty, educators of prospective teachers and student responses were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≥ 0.05, Fig. 5).

Willingness to Discuss Evolution

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students differed in their willingness to offer opinions about evolution (Fig. 6; Chi-square = 28.022, df = 4, P ≤ 0.001): 94.4% of the general faculty versus 75.0% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 63.4% of the students indicated acceptance of evolution and of expressing it openly regardless of others’ opinions, 2.8% of the general faculty versus 12.5% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 20.0% of the students preferred not to comment on this issue, and 2.8% of the general faculty versus 12.5% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 16.6% of the students admitted accepting evolution but not discussing it openly to avoid conflicts with friends and family. Educators of prospective teachers had intermediate percentile levels of support for each of these three positions between the general faculty and the students and were statistically similar to the students in each choice. Educators and general faculty were statistically similar in respect to the option “acceptance of evolution openly,” but differed in respect to the “no opinion” and “acceptance of evolution privately” options; note that the general faculty differed statistically from the students in all cases (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 6).

Overall Opinion about Evolution

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students differed in their overall opinion about evolution (Fig. 7; Chi-square = 13.835, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001): 81.9% of the general faculty versus 71.4% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 58.4% of the students thought that evolution is definitely true, and 18.1% of the general faculty versus 28.6% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 41.6% of the students thought that evolution is probably true. Educators of prospective teachers had intermediate percentile level of support for each of these two positions between the general faculty and the students, but were statistically similar to both groups; only the general faculty differed statistically from the students (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 7).

An Acceptable Definition of Evolution

There was noticeable variation in the views of the general faculty versus the educators of prospective teachers versus the students about alternative definitions of evolution (Fig. 8): 80% of the general faculty, 94.3% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 85.1% of the students considered definition a of evolution as true: gradual process by which the universe changes, it includes the origin of life, its diversification and the synergistic phenomena resulting from the interaction between life and the environment; faculty and student responses were statistically similar (within group comparisons Chi-square = 8.532, df = 2, P = 0.014); note that definition a was the most comprehensive included in the survey. Eleven percent of the general faculty versus 39.6% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 50.3% of the students considered definition b of evolution as true: directional process by which unicellular organisms, like bacteria, turn into multicellular organisms, like sponges, which later turn into fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals and ultimately humans, the pinnacle of evolution (within group comparisons chi-square = 36.748, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001); the general faculty and the educators of prospective teachers correctly rejected this definition, but their responses were significantly different from each other (89% of the general faculty versus 60.4% considered it false, sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 8); despite the 39.6% true versus 60.4% false responses by the educators of prospective teachers, their views did not differ statistically from the students’, but the students true versus false responses were similar to chance (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≥ 0.05; Fig. 8); note that definition b implies purpose in evolution and goal toward “humanity.” Six percent of the general faculty versus 13.2% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 25.3% of the students considered definition c of evolution as true: gradual process by which monkeys, such as chimpanzees, turn into humans (within group comparisons chi-square = 14.755, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001); the three groups correctly rejected this definition (94% of the general faculty, 86.8% of the educators of prospective teachers and 74.% of the students considered it false, sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 8); note that definition c asserts that chimpanzees are “monkeys” and that humans evolved from them. Thirty percent of the general faculty, 34.0% of the educators of prospective teachers and 28.5% of the students considered definition d of evolution as true: random process by which life originates, changes, and ends accidentally in complex organisms such as humans; the three groups correctly rejected this definition (70% of the general faculty, 66% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 71.5% of the students considered it false) and their responses were statistically similar (within group comparisons Chi-square = 0.655, df = 2, P = 0.721); note that definition d implies that evolution is random and accidental. Thirty-one percent of the general faculty versus 58.5% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 74.8% of the students considered definition e of evolution as true: gradual process by which organisms acquire traits during their lifetimes, such as longer necks, larger brains, resistance to parasites, and then pass on these traits to their descendants (within group comparisons Chi-square = 40.081, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001); 69% of the general faculty versus 41.5% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 25.2% of the students correctly rejected this Lamarckian definition; note that the general faculty, educators of prospective teachers and students true/false responses were distinctive (Gen Fac 31/69% versus Edu 58.5/41.5% versus Stu 74.8/25.2%), however, the views of the general faculty differed statistically from both the opinions of the educators of prospective teachers and the students,’ the latter two groups were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 8).

Evidence about the Evolutionary Process

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students varied in their understanding of how evolution works (Fig. 9): 94% of the general faculty, 96.2% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 88.2% of the students correctly considered statement a as true: all current living organisms are descendants of common ancestors, which have evolved for thousands, millions or billions of years; responses by the three groups were statistically similar (within group comparisons Chi-square = 5.101, df = 2, P = 0.078). Seventy-four percent of the general faculty versus 54.7% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 65.4% of the students correctly considered statement b as true: humans are apes, relatives of chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans; true/false responses by the three groups differed distinctively (within group comparisons Chi-square = 7.907, df = 2, P = 0.019) and although the general faculty and students true versus false responses were comparable to each other and both were different than chance (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 9), the educators of prospective teachers true versus false responses were similar to chance (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≥ 0.05; Fig. 9). Four percent of the general faculty versus 11.3% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 18.7% of the students considered statement c as true: the hominid (human lineage) fossil record is so poor that scientists cannot tell with confidence that modern humans evolved from ancestral forms (within group comparison Chi-square = 11.212, df = 2, P = 0.004); educators of prospective teachers’ responses were statistically similar to both the general faculty and the students; however, significantly less general faculty than students thought that this statement was true (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 9). Note that 96% of the general faculty, 88.7% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 81.3% of the students correctly rejected this statement and these responses were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≥ 0.05; Fig. 9). Fifteen percent of the general faculty versus 32.0% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 34.7% of the students considered statement d as true: the origin of the human mind and consciousness cannot be explained by evolution (within group comparison Chi-square = 11.714, df = 2, P = 0.003); the general faculty responses were statistically different from both the educators of prospective teachers and the students (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 9); note that 85% of the general faculty, 68% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 65.3% of the students correctly rejected this statement and their responses were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≥ 0.05; Fig. 9). Twenty-one percent of the general faculty versus 41.5% of the educators of prospective teachers versus 47.3% of the students considered statement e as true: the universe, our solar system and planet Earth are finely tuned to embrace human life (within group comparisons Chi-square = 16.392, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001); significantly less general faculty than both educators of prospective teachers and students thought that this statement was true (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 9). Although 79% of the general faculty and 58.5% of the educators of prospective teachers correctly rejected this statement, and their responses were comparable to each other but different than chance (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 9), the students’ true versus false responses were similar to chance (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparison P ≥ 0.05; Fig. 9).

Your Religiosity

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students varied in their religiosity (Fig. 10): 5% of the general faculty, 7.5% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 25.1% of the students considered statement a as true: faith in God is necessary for morality (within group comparisons Chi-square = 21.033, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001); significantly less general faculty and educators of prospective teachers than students thought that this statement was true (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 10). Note that 95% of the general faculty, 92.5% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 74.9% of the students considered this statement as false and their responses were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≥ 0.05; Fig. 10). Twenty-nine percent of the general faculty, 41.5% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 37.3% of the students considered statement b as true: religion is very important in my life (within group comparisons Chi-square = 3.733, df = 2, P = 0.155; Fig. 10). Note that 71% of the general faculty, 59.5% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 62.7% of the students thought that this statement was false; true/false responses by the three groups were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≥ 0.05; Fig. 10). Seventeen percent of the general faculty, 34.0% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 27.6% of the students considered statement c as true: I pray at least once a day (within group comparisons Chi-square = 7.644, df = 2, P = 0.022; Fig. 10). The general faculty responses were statistically different from both the educators of prospective teachers and the students (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 10). Note that 83% of the general faculty, 66% of the educators of prospective teachers, and 72.4% of the students rejected this statement and these responses were statistically similar (sign test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≥ 0.05; Fig. 10).

Understanding of Science Index

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students differed in their levels of understanding science: the educators of prospective teachers had intermediate levels of understanding science (Edu SI = 1.96), between the general faculty (Gen Fac SI = 2.49) and the students (Stu SI = 1.80; Fig. 11; Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA on ranks, H = 89.365, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001). Note that the general faculty SI was statistically different from both the educators of prospective teachers SI and the students’ SI (Dunn test, two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 11) and that the latter two groups were statistically similar. The three groups responded distinctively to each of the subcomponents of choice a, question 10 (above), as follows: first subcomponent (scientific theories are based on opinions by scientists) the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.891, Edu = 0.735, and Stu = 0.642; for the second subcomponent (scientific arguments are as valid and respectable as their non-scientific counterparts), the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.806, Edu = 0.641, and Stu = 0.635; and third subcomponent (crime-scene and accident-scene investigators use a different type of scientific method to investigate a crime or an accident) the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.792, Edu = 0.584, and Stu = 0.526.

Understanding of Evolution Index

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students differed distinctively in their levels of understanding evolution: the educators of prospective teachers had intermediate levels of understanding evolution (Edu EI = 1.96) between the general faculty (Gen Fac EI = 2.49) and the students (Stu EI = 1.60; Fig. 11; Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA on ranks, H = 171.683, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001). Note that each of these three groups were statistically different (Dunn test, two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 11). The three groups responded distinctively to each of the subcomponents of choice b, question 10 (above), as follows: first subcomponent (organisms acquire beneficial traits during their lifetimes and then pass on these traits to their descendants) the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.689, Edu = 0.415, and Stu = 0.230; second subcomponent (during evolution monkeys such as chimpanzees can turn into humans) the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.950, Edu = 0.867, and Stu = 0.725; and third subcomponent (the origin of the human mind and consciousness cannot be explained by evolution) the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.851, Edu = 0.679, and Stu = 0.642.

Religiosity Index

The general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students differed in their levels of religiosity: the educators of prospective teachers had intermediate levels of religiosity (Edu RI = 0.83) between the general faculty (Gen Fac RI = 0.49) and the students (Stu RI = 0.89; Fig. 11; Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA on ranks, H = 21.734, df = 2, P ≤ 0.001), but only the general faculty RI differed statistically from the students’ RI (Dunn test two-tail pair-wise comparisons P ≤ 0.05; Fig. 11). The three groups responded distinctively to each of the subcomponents of choice c in question 10 (above), as follows: first subcomponent (faith in God is necessary for morality), the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.045, Edu = 0.075, and Stu = 0.246; second subcomponent (religion is very important in my life) the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.283, Edu = 0.415, and Stu = 0.372; and third subcomponent (I pray at least once a day) the partial scores were: Gen Fac = 0.166, Edu = 0.339, and Stu = 0.267.

Associations between Indexes

The three groups showed directionality in the association between indexes (Fig. 12). Levels of understanding of science and evolution by the general faculty, educators of prospective teachers, and students decreased with increasing religiosity (i.e., a negative association of variables). In contrast, levels of understanding of evolution increased with increasing understanding of science (i.e., a positive association of variables). The scale at which the SI and EI indexes decreased as a function of increasing RI was in accordance with the high levels of understanding of science/evolution--and low religiosity--by the general faculty in respect to the intermediate and low levels of understanding of science/evolution--and high religiosity--by the educators of prospective teachers and the students, respectively (first and second rows, Fig. 12). Analogously, the scale at which the EI index increased as a function of SI was in accordance with the high understanding of science/evolution by the general faculty and the intermediate and low levels of understanding of science by the educators of prospective teachers and the students, respectively (third row, Fig. 12). Note the following pattern in Fig. 12: in the context of SI versus RI comparisons, the highest to lowest levels of understanding of science by the general faculty (Gen Fac SI = 2.59–2.0; 69.8–3.2% of responders; index R ²  = 0.964, P = 0.009; Fig. 12a), educators of prospective teachers (Edu SI = 2.07–1.0; 52.8–7.5% of responders; index R ²  = 0.740, P = 0.069; Fig. 12b), and students (Stu SI = 1.97–1.32; 53.5–12.3% of responders; index R ²  = 0.969, P = 0.007; Fig. 12c) corresponded to the lowest to highest levels of religiosity (RI = 0.0–3.0) in each group, respectively. In the context of EI versus RI, the highest to lowest levels of understanding of evolution by the general faculty (Gen Fac EI = 2.53–2.0; 69.8–3.2% of responders; index R ²  = 0.811, P = 0.049; Fig. 12d), educators of prospective teachers (Edu EI = 2.25–1.0; 52.8–7.5% of responders; index R ²  = 0.974, P = 0.006; Fig. 12e), and students (Stu EI = 1.67–1.35; 53.5–12.3% of responders; index R ²  = 0.894, P = 0.027; Fig. 12f) corresponded to the lowest to highest levels of religiosity (RI = 0.0–3.0) in each group, respectively. And, in the context of EI versus SI, the lowest to highest levels of understanding of evolution by the general faculty (Gen Fac EI = 1.50–2.68; 1.8–59.5% of responders; index R ²  = 0.989, P = 0.002; Fig. 12g), educators of prospective teachers (Edu EI = 1.50–2.35; 11.3–37.7% of responders; index R ²  = 0.921, P = 0.020; Fig. 12h), and students (Stu EI = 1.05–1.92; 10.2–27.3% of responders; index R ²  = 0.996, P = 0.0005; Fig. 12i) corresponded to the lowest to highest levels of understanding of science (SI = 0.0 to 3.0) in each group, respectively.