First Week Application
According to the working groups’ answers, mainly geologists and archeologists are known to estimate the age of the Earth. The other science branches were named in order as mineralogy, geochemistry, and petrology. All participants agreed that the age of the Earth is around 4.5 × 109 years. However, there are different opinions regarding how the age of the Earth is determined. These are as follows:
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1.
The theory of continental drift
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2.
Basically, it could be based on the first fossil records
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3.
Carbon dating
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4.
Radioactive half-life
It is not surprising that most of the participants’ thoughts regarding estimates of the age of the Earth are based on non-demonstrative applications such as continental drift, and radioactive half-life. However, the group participants could hardly compare a million years with something that they know. Since almost none of the participants knew when the most popular prehistoric organisms such as the dinosaurs first appeared and went extinct on the Earth, most of the participants thought that prehistoric humans and dinosaurs lived in the same historical period. In short, one million years resembled nothing to the participants, and their knowledge of the fossil record was quite low; they knew almost nothing about the fossil record.
Second Week Application
Each group came with their equipment to the classroom. They rolled down a roll of toilet paper and measured it. To do that they just measured a single of sheet and counted them all. Length varied between 20 and 25 meters. First, the predictions were gathered regarding modern human being fossil records and dinosaurs. The students mostly marked between 5 and 15 meters and thought that modern human beings and dinosaurs lived in the same period. Second, they were asked to begin to mark on the toilet paper the most popular living organisms according the fossil record with their own geological time scale. These were: first one-cell microorganism (3.8 × 109), first terrestrial plants (450 × 106), first appearance of dinosaurs (250 × 106), first phanerogam-cryptogam (145 × 106), disappearance of dinosaurs (65 × 106), first mammal (24 × 106), and modern human beings (0.2 × 106) years. They marked these fossil records and then discussed what they found. The researcher did not get involved in this process but let the group members discuss because this approach is more appropriate to the format of constructivism. The discussion process takes approximately half an hour.
Third Week Application
Finally, in the last week of research, a questionnaire sheet with five questions was given to each participant (in the Appendix). After the participants wrote down their thoughts regarding questions, each questionnaire paper was given a number such as [1], [2].
The most well-informed participant (participant [7]) regarding the TOE said:
This is a process that shows all organisms have come through a common ancestor…The mechanism of evolution is so complex. To comprehend it, one should have adequate knowledge…Since evolution has come over the billions of years; one cannot see a concrete form of evolution [Macro evolution]. However one can estimate the process of evolution with fossil records. That is why I believe in evolution…After this application, nothing changed for me. The presence of different organisms since the Earth existed is a concrete proof for evolution. The organisms which cannot adapt to the environment could not survive--that is explained by natural selection… according to me, this activity should be applied to the people who are scientifically literate. Otherwise, a person who does not know anything about biology cannot be different from a lay person.
Even though participant [7] was the most well-informed about the TOE, s/he couldn’t say anything about population genetics. According to the participant, adaptation is the result of environmental conditions and evolution is a complex process. The second important issue is s/he was the only participant who underlined the importance of scientific literacy. Lastly, the participant pointed out that people are quite illiterate regarding biological concepts. It should be noted here that the participants were pre-service science teachers.
Participant [14] declared her/his opinions as follows:
The evolution process explains the change from the first step of existence of microorganism to the human being [Macro evolution and progressivism]. These developments reveal the changes from archaic microorganism to the most complex one…Speaking of the mechanism of evolution, generally the evolution process brings to my mind a process which is coming from monkey to human being…There are things that I believe in evolution as much as I do not. Why do not I believe? According to this thought [evolution], the roots of human being come from the monkey. If this is true, then it is supposed to be that all monkeys should turn into human beings. If evolution means changing, this should have been like what I said. But this does not happen…When I applied this hands-on activity, I comprehended that we did not know anything about evolution. We just know what we have heard. With this activity, the existence of human generation is hardly noticeable compared to the age of the Earth.
Even though participant [14] accepts that s/he lacks adequate knowledge regarding biological evolution, s/he does not believe in the TOE. However, the participant cannot tell what s/he does not know about the TOE. Common misconceptions are still based on coming from the monkeys and evolution is a progressive process. The participant can be categorized between skeptic and uninformed anti-evolutionist. Upcoming participants’ utterances reveal why students have this particular misconception.
Participant [20] only answers one question and follows up saying:
“I do not believe in the TOE because I merely believe that Allahu Ta’ala (the God) created human being [based on Qu’ran doctrine-uninformed anti-evolutionist].”
As a pre-service science teacher, s/he categorizes the living organism and human being differently. This misinformation can be found in most biology textbooks in Turkey.
Participant [21] says “…But there are many misconceptions such as Darwin claims that human beings came through the monkeys” and follows up “…we cannot say that religion (Islam) does not reject the TOE. As a result Qu’ran says that we (human beings) all were made of water and soil.” Similar thoughts can be found in other research (Dagher and BouJaoude 1997). However, integration of science and religion or basically reading the scripture in a scientific way is quite rare for the Islamic point of view [Integration science and religion—Neutral] and it should not be considered in the frame of scientific explanation.
Participant [22] says “I do not believe in TOE. The human being was made of water and soil. The ancestor of human beings is known. We [human beings] did not change. People say we evolved from monkeys. I do not agree with this idea.” [based on Qu’ran doctrine—conflict between science and religion—uninformed anti-evolutionist].
Even though participants [21] and [22] use the same rhetoric, the former participant shows the idea of integration, the succeeding one grasps conflict between religion and the TOE. Participant [22] follows up saying:
They [my thoughts] did not change because it is almost impossible to convert a person’s thought at a particular age. I do not believe that my thoughts will change…The activity was interesting. If this activity is applied for youngsters with certain explanation, it is possible to shape their minds. However our thoughts [her/his peers] are rigid.” This finding can also be supported by Sinatra and coworkers’ (2003) research. Participant [25] says:
As a matter of fact, before this hands-on activity, evolution has brought to my mind that human beings have come through monkeys. The textbooks [Ministry of National Education’s official publications] enclose this kind of photos...Till this year, I have never believed in the TOE. When I have read some books, I always find some logical and illogical things; however, many things actually make sense now…I read a book. This book never implies human beings come through monkey…It is more like our ancestors looked like monkeys. It is not the same…With this activity, I really saw the difference between the age of the Earth and existence of human beings.
According to participant [25], books are quite important that give a shape to one’s mind; however, even official books are not written scientifically. If one reads proper scientific sources, it is possible to change one’s mind. The participant can be categorized as skeptic or uninformed pro-evolutionist.
Participant [27] says “At the beginning, I thought that the TOE is a theory that supports human beings come through monkeys; that is why I could not believe in. After getting more information regarding it [TOE], now it makes sense…I began to see the world with the eyes of different organisms. The world does not belong to us…” [Damage of anthropocentric thought]
Participant [28] highlights that s/he does not believe in the TOE and says “Because there is no exact definition [regarding the TOE]; its definition depends on which book you read…While speaking of the TOE, textbooks mostly include photos picturing turning from monkey to the human being. However, the TOE does not have this argument. It is too wrong to use this kind of photos.” [Even though the participant knows aforementioned drawback for textbooks, s/he does not believe in the TOE]. Participant [39] points out the same problem. “Books are the most important negative effect on us." Clearly, it might be said that the textbooks are ill prepared. These textbooks contain specific misinformation in Turkey (Peker et al. 2010). Rees (2007) in England and McCarthy and Sanders (2007) in South Africa similarly point out how science textbooks are not adequate and include ill definitions regarding the TOE.
Participant [30] reveals another internalized misconception. “[the TOE] it is not valid anymore…Look at the websites…because none of the complex organisms can result from a prokaryotic cell. There is no useful mutation model, but the TOE is built up on useful effects of mutations.” The participant believes that mutations cannot be constructive (useful). This is the first misconception. The second is that the TOE merely depends on mutations.Footnote 1 The participant discusses the validity of the TOE according to what s/he has learned from some Internet websites. The participant can be categorized under an uninformed anti-evolutionist. Participant [33] says:
I think it [the TOE] is baloney. This is totally fabricated by the science community to wipe out religion…I do not know anything about the TOE…It is all about atheism. Who cares what you [the instructor] say…Maybe you made people confused with this hands-on activity though you cannot deceive me. Whatever you do, the Earth, human beings, and all creatures were created by Allah. You cannot disprove it…Good trick, good job.
Even though the utterances by participant [33] show that s/he is strongly opposed to the TOE as an uninformed anti-evolutionist, this application creates an inquiry and cognitive interrogation process for the individual. S/he reveals her/his indisposition towards the TOE strongly--even sometimes offensively.
Participant [52] similarly declares her/his rejection of the idea of biological evolution and follows up, saying “…I realized that some pieces of the puzzle [the TOE] lack. These problems regarding the TOE make me not to believe in it. Thus, I am supposed to read more resources…The huge time gap difference between the age of the Earth and fossil records of human beings made me surprised though nothing changed regarding the TOE in my mind. It was quite an effective activity.”
Participant [54] says: “I do not believe in the TOE because if everything has evolved then how and from which organism human being has been evolved. I am wondering this answer. The creator, Allah, says in Holy Qu’ran in some verses such as in Ikra and Yasin, we [human beings] were created from nothing. We were not evolved from another organism. These ideas [the TOE] are sick and help atheist people cheer up themselves…The activity was joyful because we could say our thoughts freely. When we say against any idea of the TOE, we could be threatened by the other instructors”
Participant [70] says: “I do not know anything [regarding the mechanism of biological evolution]. I do not believe in the TOE because it does not look logical turning one creature to another one. For instance, some people say human being is the descendant of monkey. These people are supporters of the TOE. Many experiments prove that this is not possible. Still I do not believe in the TOE [after activity]. I do not think that 200,000 years of first appearance of first human being proves anything to me regarding the TOE.”
Participant [102] declares: I do not know anything about the TOE. I do not believe in it because it is impossible for an organism to change too much to adapt itself. I think an organism still keeps the same form how it was created. Participants [70], [93], [102], [105], and [106] are just five of the uninformed anti-evolutionist who do not know anything about the TOE and do not believe in it either.
Meanwhile 25 participants declared that their thoughts regarding the TOE changed positively. Mostly, they pointed out the first appearance of the human being on the geological time scale. For instance, participant [81] says “…Yes my opinion has changed [regarding the TOE]. The huge difference between the age of modern human being and the earth is too much…” Participant [129] says, “I really do not know anything about the TOE…However, I have never thought that the first appearance of human being and the age of Earth could be like this. I had had no idea of this much time gap. I applied the activity but still I cannot visualize it. I am shocked.” Similarly, Participants [99] and [103] declared that their thoughts had changed. This conceptual change is mostly based on the huge time gap between the first appearance and the age of the earth. It also shows that even though participants are not well informed regarding the TOE, participants might tend to accept the TOE.
Participant [55] associated the TOE with Marxism and Leninism--even with socialism. The same participant also supports the censorship regarding Darwin’s article in popular science magazine Science and Technology which is funded by an official government science academy (Abott 2009). The participant follows up saying “Darwinism is a perverted idea which has been supported by the atheists that is why I do not believe in the TOE… I am really confused…Hope, I do more search [to learn regarding the TOE]. But where are the transition forms? After 150 years, why is the TOE still theory not a law? Still I am not satisfied. Still, I should ask many questions… I liked the activity. It is everlasting activity (easily-remembered). I would like to use this activity in my class.”
Participant [55] is neither politically nor scientifically correct and reveals common misconceptions and epistemological problems. Meanwhile, it appears that the participant is strongly religiously opinioned. According to the participant, a particular circle of members (pro-evolutionists) have imposed the ideas of Darwin on society. A common epistemological problem regarding the definition of theory is also another finding which can be supported by previously conducted studies in Turkey (Taskin and et al. 2008). The participant also looks for transitional forms for the proof of the TOE; however these transitional forms are defined as freaks, such as fish with wings, an organism with an elephant trunk. Participant [56] similarly says that “I would like to believe in the TOE however I cannot see it.” It is not surprising to find these examples because readers mostly use misinformed internet websites such as Harun Yahya’s.
After accepting that participant [29] does not know anything about the TOE, s/he continues “It is impossible to say whether I believe in or not the TOE. However, so far I have not believed in the TOE…I know that there is change...But I really wonder, does evolution say that human beings have come through monkeys? Could you tell us this in the course?...Only this activity did not change my thoughts; however I perceived that I never questioned many issues before this hands-on activity. I am quite surprised to see that we [human beings] have a short history on the Earth. Now more than believing or not the TOE, I am really confused.” As mentioned before, the instructor neither gets involved in the active discussion process nor gives a lecture regarding conceptual knowledge of the TOE. However, the utterances clearly reveal that the pre-service science teachers desperately look for a valid informant.
Even though some participants are quite anti-evolutionist, utterances also show that they feel quite comfortable during the application of activity. The research results of Haidar (1999) also support and, most importantly, challenge us with critical questions. According to Haidar’s finding, “Constructivist views can be attributed to religious beliefs. Students’ views that scientists cannot see the real thing is consistent with the Islamic understanding that only God (the Great Knower) knows the real truth.” Thus, the existing inclination of most of the participants is quite understandable.