Fig. 3

Different representations of the causes of phenotypes. a Emphasis on linear and direct genotype–phenotype relations, sometimes with a footnote about the role of environment, that characterizes gene-focused notions about the causes of phenotypes. b Multi-causal and reciprocal interactions shaping intra individual phenotypic variation throughout development, as conceptualized in trait-centered and generalised evolution science. Note that in this case, various inheritance streams, beyond genetic inheritance, can become relevant in the reconstruction of phenotypes, and hence in the evolution of adaptations. Sources: Laland et al. (2011); Oyama et al. (2001); Jamieson and Radick (2017)