Table 1 Nature of science themes with sample items and mean ratings for theme, followed by the standard deviation

Theory support: scientific theories are not just guesses

3.91 (0.38)

    To be accepted, scientific theories must be supported by much evidence

    New hypotheses are basically wild guesses; scientists just dream them up^a

Theory limits: theories can explain phenomena but cannot be definitively proven

3.52 (0.34)

    Accepted scientific theories are well-supported explanations for a broad set of natural phenomena

    Theories are basically hunches; they have not yet accumulated enough supporting evidence to be considered hypotheses^a

Testing: testing is central to science but can occur in many different ways

3.68 (0.42)

    The same hypothesis or theory is often tested in many different ways

    Scientific investigations could not proceed without laboratory experiments^a

Nonlinearity: the process of science is nonlinear, complex, and contingent

4.05 (0.50)

    The process of science is nonlinear; each step can lead to many possible next steps

    Scientists always follow the same step-by-step scientific method^a

Construction: theories are constructed, not “read off” from nature

3.86 (0.37)

    Scientific knowledge is built through a complex process that relies, in part, on observations of nature

    Scientific knowledge is deduced directly from observations of nature^a

Provisionality: hypotheses and theories can always be modified

4.05 (0.53)

    Scientific theories are subject to ongoing testing and revision

    Scientific theories based on accurate experimentation will not be changed^a

Continuity: science is an on-going process

4.19 (0.48)

    Scientific investigations usually lead to additional questions for further investigation

    Scientific investigations usually come to a definitive end, allowing the science to move on to a brand new question^a

Comparison: testing involves comparing multiple explanations with available evidence

3.54 (0.44)

    The aim of scientific testing is to figure out which explanation for a phenomenon is most likely to be correct

    Scientists usually investigate one hypothesis thoroughly before thinking about alternative explanations^a

Creativity: science relies on imagination and creativity

3.45 (0.71)

    Scientists use their imagination and creativity when they come up with new experiments, hypotheses, and theories

    Scientists do not use their imagination and creativity because these can interfere with objectivity^a

Community: the scientific community plays an important role in science

4.17 (0.49)

    The scientific community is essential to the process and progress of science

    Unlike many other professions, science is almost always a solitary endeavor^a

Applications: science and society are interrelated

4.23 (0.49)

    Everyday problems and observations frequently inspire scientific investigations

    Science is pure; scientists strive to do their work without considering its potential applications^a

Society and culture: science is influenced by social and cultural factors

3.83 (0.68)

    Individual scientists are influenced by their societies and cultures, and this, in turn, influences their scientific work

    Scientific research is not influenced by society and culture because scientists are trained to conduct “pure,” unbiased studies^a